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THE PARTICIPANTS AND THEIR ROLES
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| Bygherre
In the legal and economic context the Bygherre (client) initiates the construction of the project. Different types of clients are in practice represented by:
The role of the client can vary strongly depending on its competence and capacity. When more experienced, the client might perform several of the tasks normally being undertaken by other parties in the process. Some institutional investors (banks, insurance companies, pension funds etc.) have established their own internal organisations for initial development and conceptualisation of project ideas. At the other end of the skill range are the majority of private clients without any professional background, totally inexperienced, building for their own use for the first and only time. The design team is formed by the different technical professions:
The design team normally holds a formal agreement with the client concerning the design and planning tasks. In the traditional context the architect is considered as being the client's prime representative, acting on behalf of the client in all external matters and engaged during all the phases of the process. He then handles a rather broad variety of functions, apart from the basic fixing of aesthetic and functional specifications also including technical, economical, planning and managerial matters. When a client asks an architect to launch a project he determines the tasks and the internal distribution of functions in the design team and between the rest of the parties in the process according to a model elaborated by Praktiserende Arkitekters Råd (PAR). This model is founded in ABR-89. The model is rather independent and rigid in relation to the practice of construction, since the tasks it defines are to be executed despite the formal boundaries and organisational relations between the parties in the actual process. It must, however, be emphasised that a certain - some would even say dramatic - development as a shift in the balance of power in the project organisation has occurred during the 1970s and 1980s. Generally this development has gradually reduced the functions of the architect - and thus his importance. In a vast majority of the larger projects the architect's most central contributions were in the overall aesthetic and functional conceptualisation process, often at a quite abstract level. Parallel to this change the consultant engineers, the material suppliers and in particular the contractor have taken over more responsibility in areas such as design, selection of materials, economics, quality control, management. A key force behind this development undoubtedly originates in contractors' strategic willingness to undertake increased responsibility for overall time and cost management. So strong marketing efforts towards potential clients have emphasised the contractors' ability to execute projects at fixed prices and times. But also the technological development throughout the booming 1950s and 1960s should be considered as incorporating such long-term organisational changes. As the basic Danish industrialisation concept, ultimately leading to the prefabricated house, allowed use of repetitive details from unit to unit and from project to project, this reduced radically the need for architectural detailing during the design phase. Consequently, perhaps deliberately and definitely with some success, architects refined the artistic approach of their profession within the industrialised building concept, thus leaving large parts of the decision making to other actors, primarily the contractors. However in the 1990s the architects have regained some of the position previously held in the project organisation. With the emerge of the concept for totalrådgivning the architect has become a strong, driving force in the design and execution in a large share of the projects. Furthermore the architect has adapted several "new" functions like preparation of plans for care and maintenance and a participation in the daily operation of the building. To help clarify the roles of the actors in the building, the PAR has issued guidelines for the internal co-operation in the design team in connection with a project. The detailed distribution of work is shown in table 3. During the initial phases prior to design the architect is gradually materialising the client's idea of a building. At this stage there is, of course, a strong liaison with the client, who retains the possibility for acceptance or rejection of the suggested project ideas. Based on the client's decision the project proceeds to the next phase - planning and studies. The architect's drawings now become an integrated and substantial part of the project information. The drawings contain information about the site location, the size of the site, conditions on the site, gross floor area ratio and local planning conditions. Other consultants - representing independent companies - then enter the design team. Normally on a building project the structural engineer provides the structural design just as the mechanical and electrical engineer are in charge of electrical, heating, ventilation and sanitary installations. The surveyor ensures the positioning of the building in accordance with the planning permission obtained. Furthermore specialist planners normally come into action on projects of a more com-plex nature. For example town planners involved in area and infrastructure layout for larger groups of buildings; or specialist consultants in cases of polluted sites; or specialists, planners and managers serving together as advisors within technical and commercial fields relevant to the specific project. The design team (chaired by the architect) now make preliminary estimations on the project budget, and time schedules indicating critical paths are outlined. The architect furthermore spends some effort working out a functional analysis of the project often going into great detail with each single room/part of the project. Ultimately and prior to the design team's actual design work all information is collected, structured and presented in a briefing to the client, on the basis of which it decides whether or not to proceed with the chosen design. During the following design phase the task for the design team first of all is to produce drawings for the project, but also a number of consultancy tasks are considered to be integrated in this design stage:
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Table 3 Architectural responsabilities |
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In connection with the project management task a
project manager is appointed within the design team to undertake the contact
with the client. A major job for the project manager is to supervise the
progress and budget of the project. The project manager determines the
detailed procedures for co-operation among the designers involved in the
process at various times. He also chairs various regular meetings like
project and client meetings. Finally the project manager is responsible for
obtaining the building permission from the authorities, he is responsible
for the tender process, and subsequent to the tender he calculates the
complete budget on basis of submitted bids by the contractors.
In the programme draft stage an outline proposal is drawn up. The outline proposal consists of the architectural idea, function and environment. It also contains principles for the structure and service installations and the main selection of materials. It includes an organisational plan for the project as well as a plan for the upcoming tender process. The outline proposal finally contains calculations and specifications for the areas to be built-up. The drawings are now prepared showing building location and landscaping in scale 1:500 or 1:1000. Sketches of plans/elevations in scale 1:200 or 1:500 including perspectives of the building. The architect prepares an estimate of the costs based on the previous cost frames in the client's brief. The architect also works out an estimate normally following the format covering the costs for:
This estimate is based on the experience represented within the design team, and prices are traditionally based on units - either m² or functional units. Having this estimate at hand the client is now able to update its investment plans. In cases where exceptions to existing rules are required it is normally the architect's task to make the necessary inquiries to the responsible authorities. The client himself participates in meetings during the programme drafting stage in order to discuss upcoming proposals from the client's briefing. The client formally accepts the outline proposal of the project before the design team continues working out the framework proposal. The framework proposal is a more extensive elaboration of the outline proposal described above. The choice of construction means and methods is described and motivated as well as more detailed plans for furnishings. The choice of tender form is now finalised, and so is an organisational plan for the project completion. The design team continues detailing the drawings, and the time schedule for the design and the execution is updated. The architect now breaks down the budget in greater detail, stating costs for:
The budget is supplemented with information on the index, on which construction costs are based and will be regulated, and also with the proposal for the tender form and conditions. Finally a general evaluation of the market situation and other circumstances that will influence the project and the execution is included. At this stage the budget must cover the total estimated expenses for the completion of the project. It thus serves as a cost target inside which the design team is committed to complete the project. The architect also notifies the relevant public authorities on the project. As discussed above, the client is supposed to collaborate closely with the design team during this process. On the basis of the budget he updates the investment plan for the project and then finally approves the project in its present form as the basis for the commencement of the initial stages of actual design. In cases of a larger client organisation remarks from the future users are formally obtained and integrated here, too. The first phase in the actual design of the building is the preliminary project. During this stage the design team develops the main dispositions for the building, and aspects like parking facilities, accessibility, surroundings, regional planning and fire regulations are discussed in dialogue with the public authorities. Drawings now have to fulfil requirements from the authorities in respect of the Building Regulations. The client delegates formal power to the architect to submit an application for a building permit. Besides meeting the demands of the Building Regulations the drawings must be supplemented by a summary of the discussions held between the design team and other authorities. The design team finally updates the time schedule and the budget based on the latest project information and revisions. In the detailed design of the building, the project is elaborated, specified and detailed sufficiently to function as the prerequisite for the final building permission, the tender, the contract negotiations and the signing, and the subsequent execution. The detailed design is composed of a description including the conditions for contract and contract specifications, bill of quantities, a time schedule and a set of detailed drawings. The architect is in charge during the tender process leading the negotiations with the contractors as well as evaluating the incoming bids. The tender documents will of course state a programme, giving the starting and completion dates and intermediate deadlines carrying sanctions for the various individual contracts. In terms of costs, the architect updates the budget in accordance with the price fluctuations, partly using the changes in the agreed cost index partly considering special conditions in relation to the labour market and business market situation. If alterations to the project are agreed this also calls for updating of the budget. The budget is adapted to the chosen tender form and divided into the relevant sections and sub-budgets. Following tender the architect submits a report to the client with an evaluation of the tender result, including comparison to the budget estimated prior to the tender. In cases where the result of the tender exceeds the budget the client might insist on a revision of the project in liaison with the architect. Such a revision is free to the client. However, should the exceeding tender result be due to possible agreed fluctuations such as agreed price regulation; agreed variations; or unknown conditions at time of tender, then the design team is entitled to a fee for the additional work required when revising the project. The client's main role during this stage is to participate in eventual project revisions due to budget excess (and/or time schedule overruns). In connection with the subsequent negotiations with the bidding parties he evidently can be forced to update his investment plan, but finally the contracts with the contractors will be signed. The client is probably also involved in working out the schedules for the contract management and supervision in accordance with the public rules and in accordance with the regulations concerning quality assurance. During execution the design team is involved in a follow-up on the intentions laid down in the drawings and specifications. The follow-up also includes assistance to the construction manager and to the supervisors of the works, and the design team incorporate necessary changes and alterations in the drawings. The architect may be present at site meetings chaired by the construction manager. Bygherrerådgiver/byggestyring (construction manager) The construction manager - normally a member of the design team - is appointed prior to start up of construction, and he works on behalf of the client in detailed matters of construction. The construction manager operates according to an agreement with the client stating the distribution of tasks and responsibilities. The construction manager's direct organisational counterpart is the contracts manager representing the contractors and this relationship is regulated according to the rules specified in the general conditions. The distribution of competence is defined in a plan of the site organisation. The construction manager elaborates reports at agreed intervals, stating the progress of the project. Aspects treated in these reports are works progress, works quality, budgetary situation of the project, and thus the construction manager makes the client approve of any action taken during the construction. The construction manager should also keep detailed records of the weather conditions during construction and likewise register lost time as he is in charge of the time schedules and the necessary revisions of these. Works inspectors are engaged to control the contractor's progress in accordance with the latest revision of drawings and specifications, and they report any variation to the architect. This inspection of works during construction is of course a crucial item with the aim of ensuring that works are carried out and progress as determined in the contracts. In practice inspection is executed as spot checks of the works during construction. The level and intensity of checking is fixed according to quality control plans laid down prior to execution. When deviations from the agreed level of quality are observed a list of deficiencies is worked out prior to the final handling over. The contractor then takes corrective action, and the construction manager approves the work when the agreed quality is reached. Quantities are controlled in accordance with guidelines specified by the construction manager, and the progress payments to the contractors are released on the basis of these quantities. Financially the construction manager is therefore in charge of the accounts related to the construction, and he certifies the progress payments to the contractors. The construction manager is also responsible for co-operation with the authorities from start to finish. At the end he informs the relevant authorities about completion of the works, and obtains the permission to use the building. Lastly the construction manager is in charge of the final inspection closing the contractors' liability and warranty period and with that also responsible for the release of the performance guarantees. When eventually the building is handed over to the client the architect may become involved in the operational phase of the building. The involvement is normally consists in consulting services regarding operation and maintenance of the building. The architect will then define operation and maintenance plans based on information and instructions from contractors and suppliers and assist in executing these. An entreprenør (contractor) is the party holding a contract with the client on the execution of a part of or the entire work. The hovedentreprenør (main contractor) can subcontract whole or parts of his works to an underentreprenør (subcontractor) establishing a client - contractor relationship between the two parties. An entreprenør can be any type of company ranging from large multinational general contractors to small craftsman-type companies doing specialised tasks. The supplier Normally a building materials production company or a supplier that provides contractors with specialist materials or components. It may be specifically nominated by the design team or the client. In recent years suppliers have been increasingly involved directly in the building process, even in early phases. The intention of this is to utilise the experience held by the material producers and to adapt the project design to the specific properties of the material. This approach has become important due to the fact that complex components are more and more frequently used in buildings. Another development trend is the emergence of the supply and fix producers of materials with the migration of the producer towards a status as specialist contractor either directly or through linked, authorised contractors. The User Persons who are going to use, work or live in the building during its period of function. On larger projects the user influence is formally recognised in the design phase, i.e. represented by specially appointed groups. The Public Authority Local or government authority co-ordinating and approving technical and planning matters The legal adviser Specialist adviser occupied with detailed legal matters. Normally considered to be the client's ordinary legal adviser. |
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